Environmental Change and Management

Environments

Functions of natural environments

• environment refers to all living and non living things in the natural and human world that support and enrich life

• it is the interrelationship between its living components and its nonliving components

the biotic components of an environment include all of the plants (flora) and animals (fauna); it also includes fungi and bacteria, including those found in soil

the abiotic components of an environment including temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed and direction, the non living part of the soil such as sand, and clay and rock

• ecosystems are living organisms within a community and the non-living components of the environment in which they live

• ecosystems are seen as systems through which incoming solar energy is captured and channelled through a hierarchy of life forms

• each ecosystem has its own characteristic plant and animal community

• plants, both on land and in the sea, convert sunlight into storable and edible chemical energy

• animals feed on these plants and on other animals

• all ecosystems are linked through various processes and flows, water by the water cycle, nutrients by the carbon or nitrogen cycle and weathering and erosion by the phosphorus cycle

• plants play a vital role in transforming solar energy into chemical energy that can be used by other organisms within the ecosystem

• plants make their own food energy - they are called produces

• organisms that rely on other organisms for food energy are called consumers

• living organisms can be classified by how they consume energy

  • producers - that make their own food

  • consumers - that feed on another living thing

  • herbivore - a consumer that feeds on plant material

  • carnivore - a consumer that feeds on other animals

  • omnivore - a consumer that feeds on plant and animal material

  • decomposer - an organism that absorbs energy from dead tissue or waste products

Food Web

• the flow that links the various organisms of any ecosystem with the flow of energy and nutrients is known as the food chain

• this demonstrates how the living and non-living components of the environment are linked to each other through the flow of energy

• producer organisms in an ecosystem belong to the first trophic level, primary consumers to the second trophic level, secondary consumers to the third trophic level and so on

• food energy flows form one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level

• the feeding level of an organism is its trophic level

• this is based on how many links there are removed from the primary producers

• in trophic levels there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey

Environments

• when investigating environments or ecosystems, geographers can look at the different components and scales that are present

  • individual organism - the smallest biotic component of an environment

  • population - a group of plants or animals of the same species living in a particular area

  • community - populations of different species interact with each other

  • ecosystem - the interaction between the community and its abiotic habitat, the preferred location of an organism because of correct water, temperature, minerals and sunlight for survival

  • biome / ecosphere - a region defined by landscapes that share similar climates and types of vegetation

• the world in which we live in is made up of many different environments or biomes

• some environments occur naturally, such as forests, deserts, and coral reefs

• these are known as natural or physical environments - people adapt to it

• other environments are built or altered by humans, such as cities, towns and farmlands

• these are known as human environments - people modify it

• the major global biomes are regions defined by landscapes that share similar climates and types of vegetation

• Australia has five terrestrial biomes, which are defined by their major vegetation type

• there are mountain vegetation, temperate forest, grassland, desert and tropical forest

• climate (rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunlight hours) and soil type have a great influence on the type of plants that grow in an area

• this relationship between the climate and the soil type has an influence on the type of biome that exists

• ecosystems are usually classified according to their dominant feature and are named according to

  • climate - polar ecosystems

  • physical features - mountain ecosystems

  • vegetation - rainforest ecosystems

• land-based ecosystems (such as forests, grasslands and deserts) differ due to variations in average temperature and precipitation

• water-based ecosystems vary due to temperatures

• each environment near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected spheres

The atmosphere

• the atmosphere is the gaseous layer surrounding the earth

• many of the geographic processes that form and transform environments involve an interaction between the hydrosphere and atmosphere

• the air of our planet is 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining is composed of carbon dioxide and other gases

• solar radiation is the heat that is received from the sun’s rays

• the atmosphere plays an important role in distributing this heat around the planet

• solar radiation from the sun is concentrated at the equator poles and dispersed at the poles

The hydrosphere

• the hydrosphere is water in all its forms including rain, ice, sleet and vapour

• this includes oceans, rivers, lakes and even the moisture in the air

• 97% of the earth’s water is in the oceans. the remaining 3% is fresh water; where three-quarters is solid and exists in ice sheets

• the water cycle relates to all four of the spheres, but specifically connects the hydrosphere and atmosphere

• the water cycle is the continuous movement of water

• the processes associated with the water cycle are precipitation, infiltration, runoff, evaporation, transpiration, evapotranspiration and condensation

The lithosphere

• erosion is the wearing away of the earth by wind, water or ice

• moving water carries away soil and rock fragments

• waves crash against shorelines and move sand

• wind can carry lighter sediments, such as dust, sand and ash away

• weathering is the physical and chemical disintegration of rocks and minerals through expansion and contraction

• the earth’s crust is divided into tectonic plates which float around on top of the mantle

• where plates have collided huge mountain ranges have ben formed

• along plate boundaries, volcanoes and earthquakes are common

The biosphere

• the biosphere is all the living tings on earth

• some of the processes related to the biosphere include the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, food chains and food webs, photosynthesis, evolution and population fluctuations and movements

• changes in the size and distribution of plant and animal species impacts greatly on the functioning of environments

• changes to climate, natural hazards and human interactions are some of the factors which impact on population numbers

Four functions of the environment

• the capacity of the earth to support life and human wellbeing depends on the four major functions of the environment

  • source

  • sink

  • service

  • spiritual

Role and importance of natural environments

biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms such as animals, plants and microorganisms, and the ecosystems, landscapes and environments that they form. biodiversity is important because it can increase the productivity of an ecosystem as each species, no matter how small, has an important and distinct role

a healthy level of biodiversity provides extensive benefits

for humans these benefits can be divided into social, economic and environmental change

• the way in which we think about our environment has changed dramatically over the last few decades

• once seen as a bottomless pit of resources providing everything we need, it is now viewed as a fragile system threatened by human actions

• the ecosystem services it provides have long been ignored or taken for granted (clean air, plant pollination and fertile soil)

• the big question is how do we put a monetary value on ecosystems

• it is only now as the environment becomes degraded, the true value of its services is beginning to be recognised

• it is important to note that the components of any ecosystem can vary naturally or as a result of human intervention

• each variation will, in turn, affect other components and processes within the ecosystem

• over time, a small variation or modification may be magnified throughout the system as a whole

Environmental change and Management

Types and extent of environmental change

• ecosystems are constantly changing and evolving in response to changes within the environment

• environmental change is any alteration to an environment that disturbs natural processes

• these changes could be in response to a range of natural and human-induced factors

natural changes to ecosystems can be severe and drastic, resulting in an ecosystem having to adapt or change in a short period of time. examples of severe and drastic changes to ecosystems include drought, flood, fire, volcanic eruptions, storm surge, cyclones

natural changes could also be gradual or slow, resulting in an ecosystem having to adapt or change over a long period of time. examples of gradual or slow natural changes to ecosystems include weathering, erosion, the movement of species, adaption to climate change

natural changes such as the availability of water due to climatic factors take place very slowly and the biome gradually adapts. some animals and plant species unsuited to the change may die out. there can be other animals and plant species that are more related to the new environmental change which will remain alive, breed and pass on their characteristics to successive generations

the difference between natural change and human change are that human modifications may be either intentional, inadvertent or in some cases they are the result of negligence

ecosystems sustain us all. we are challenged by natural and human-induced stress which in turn impacts on the survival of ecosystems. the extent to which humans have disturbed ecosystems has serious implications for the future. we need to find ways humans can protect environments and promote sustainability including traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander management views and those of contemporary or current management views.

Human induced environmental change

• humans have the ability to alter natural ecosystems

• some beneficial human environmental changes include clearing land for agriculture, grazing animals to improve food production, build cities to live in and remove or extract resources from the ground

• however, some negative human environmental changes such as the damming of a river, draining wetlands, clearing natural vegetation, air and water pollution or enhanced climate change can be sudden and have drastic changes that can result in a loss of habitat and the destruction (or extinction) of a species

human threats to the biodiversity of natural environments include:

• introduced species - disrupts the flow of energy, such as the food chains and can wipe out natural flora and fauna

• land degradation - include the outright loss of area by wild species or land converted to human use

• exploitation - exploitation of plants and animals by hunting or overfishing

• pollution - due to human uses are a major threat in aquatic and land-based ecosystems

• habitat destruction - directly caused by humans, as well as destruction due to climate change, are the leading cause of the increasing extinction of earth’s species. there are 36 biodiversity hotspots on our planet; these areas have plants, animals, and other living organisms that are rare and only found in specific geographic areas. these biodiversity hotspots are currently at risk of being destroyed

humans can negatively impact the environment through overpopulation, introduced species, exploitation, pollution, burning fossil fuel and deforestation

these impacts have immediate, short, medium and long term effects on the natural environment

changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water

as the world’s population continues to grow, the demand for resources also increases. this creates challenges for sustainability, as we need to use resources fairly so that the future generations can also have access to these resources

Desertification

• desertification refers to the persistent degradation of dry land ecosystems by climatic variations and human activities

• it occurs on all continents (except Antarctica) and affects the livelihood of millions of people, including a large proportion of the poor in drylands

• the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) defines it as ‘land degradation in arid, semi arid and dry sub humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities’

• land degradation is in turn defined as the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity of drylands

Natural environmental change

• natural stresses relate to naturally occurring events such as storms, volcanic eruptions and floods that affect individual organisms or entire population of species

• these natural stresses can range from

  • gradual stress (ecosystems can slowly adapt to the change)

  • catastrophic stress (which can destroy an ecosystem entirely)

• after a natural stress event has occurred, in most situations, over time the process of life will enter an ecosystem and it will start to bounce back

• the process of new life entering the ecosystem will occur, this is called succession as the environment has the ability to repair itself

• the landscape surrounding Mt St. Helens in the US was transformed from a lush forest to barren landscape, but 36 years later, life teems in the blast zone

Traditional environmental management approaches

• a management strategy is a plan of attack, in response to the problem or concern at hand

• traditional management provides over 9000 years of ecosystem management strategies as implemented by indigenous Australians

• they did not damage the environment but were conscious of their actions when seeking food and shelter

• they were grateful for what they were able to take and treated the land with great respect

• they collected foods that allowed for recovery, they left the ecosystems intact and usually in pristine conditions

• traditional ecosystem management relies on a closer relationship with the land as they are seen as stewards of the environment

• they have a familiarity with the natural cycles within ecosystems and recognise their constraints

• emphasis is on a collective effort with intimate knowledge passed down through generations

examples used by indigenous people include:

• taboos on hunting particular animals related to totems

• limits on populations of tribes

• nomadic lifestyle limits damage on particular areas of the environment

• only taking what they need, growing only enough food for a family, killing only animals they can eat or preserve for later consumption

Contemporary environmental management approaches

• environmental change is inevitable but the extent and pace of the change has accelerated in the last 100 years

• this is largely because of human activities

• ecosystem degradation has forced us to rethink our approach to the environment

• early environmental management was clearly unsuccessful and has placed vulnerable ecosystems severely at risk or they have been destroyed

• the fate of the earth is increasingly linked to the human race

• it is important that we have a deeper understanding of environmental change and human activity before we can manage it properly

• advances in technology have significantly increased negative human impact on the environment

• there is now growing appreciation of the challenges facing humanity such as resource depletion, loss of biodiversity, pollution and climate change and how we best manage this

• humans are not separate from nature

• continued human wellbeing relies on the life-support systems the earth provides and an awareness and understanding of the connections between humans and nature

• contemporary management strategies are the current strategies used to manage ecosystems

• such approaches consider the relationship and link that humans have with the environment and attempt to provide responses to the impacts of human activity

Contemporary management strategies we use now

1. clean up Australia Day + Earth Hour

2. renewable energy sources - solar, wind, tidal

3. national parks for appreciation and protection

4. grey water - recycling water from the laundry

5. water and energy conservation

6. electric, hydrogen and hybrid cars

7. reusable plastic bags, tote bags and water bottles

8. reducing food, waste and food drives

9. recycling and separate bins

10. reduce plastic straw use

11. ocean snakes - plastic collection in the ocean

Case Study - Coasts

Introduction

coasts have been formed and shaped over thousands of years by the action of the wind and waves. human settlement on the coast has meant that these natural processes have been altered. the coastline is the area where the land meets the sea. this is known as the coastal zone

the shoreline or ‘interface’ is the exact point of interaction between the land and the sea. but, the coastal zone is clearly more than just the shoreline

the coastal zone includes many different physical features that you would already know and recognise like beaches and sand dunes

people also like to live close to if not within the coastal zone. urban settlement along the Australian coast began as soon as the europeans arrived

the coastal zone often becomes a site of transport and port infrastructure. Australia’s largest cities and urban infrastructure surround ports and harbour like Sydney Harbour and Port Botany

Biophysical Processes

all ecosystems are the result of biophysical interactions. these forces are a result of various processes that change and shape the coast, such as

1. hydrologic processes - action of the waves, the tides and ocean currents (hydrosphere)

2. geomorphic processes - uplifting forces within the earth’s crust, which create sea cliffs or the forces of erosion, transportation and deposition (lithosphere)

3. atmospheric processes - caused by such elements as temperature change, storms and the force of the wind

4. biotic processes - plant and animal life and the way they interact

the interaction of these spheres helps to determine the nature of the ecosystem at any location

Hydrologic Processes

• the sea is a powerful force whose constant action can change the shape of the coastlines, especially the shoreline where the land borders the sea

• waves are formed by the action of the wind blowing across the ocean

• first the wind forms ripples, then these form wavelets and finally waves

• the size and speed of the waves is influenced by

  • the strength of the wind - the stronger the wind the larger the wave

  • the length of the fetch or expanse of the ocean - the distance a wave travels. the greater the fetch, the larger the wave

• natural wind energy forms the waves. as the waves travel towards the coast they take the energy from the wind with them

• when the waves enter shallow water the energy in waves starts to interact with the sea floor

• the wave speed decreases, the wavelength becomes shorter and the wave height increases

• eventually the wave peak travels faster than the wave base and the waves break and release the energy they contain

• a broken wave forms the surf and swash zone

• this is the active part of the coast in terms of erosion and deposition of sand

types of waves

energy in waves is determined by their height, speed and wavelength. wave energy determines their capacity for erosion and sediment motion

crest: the top of the wave

trough: the low area in between two wavs

wavelength: the distance between two crests or two troughs

wave height: the distance between the crest and the trough

wave frequency: the number of waves per minute

velocity: the speed that a wave is travelling. it is influenced by the wind, fetch and depth of water

swash: the movement of water and load up the beach

backwash: the movement of water and load back down the beach

Swash versus Backwash

waves and wind act to erode headlands and shape beaches. these same forces then transport sand and other material to be deposited in other coastal areas forming landforms like beaches and sand dunes

• swash runs up the beach after the wave hits the sand at the same angle as the wind - same direction as wind

• backwash is the water that runs back down into the ocean at a 90º angle

when a wave breaks on a beach you can observe the swash and backwash. the swash moves up the beach at an angle, the backwash returns by gravity straight back to the sea

the action of swash and backwash mean the grains of sand can move in a zig-zag motion along a beach. this is known as longshore drift

in stormy weather the action of waves is more destructive hence strips beaches of sand (destroys or erodes the beach). over time beaches will build back up again as wave action deposits (constructs) the sand back on the beach

destructive waves mean steep, stepped beaches caused by waves pulling sediment off the beach

constructive waves mean wide, flat and usually sandy beaches as waves deposit sediment on the beach

tides

at the beach you can observe high and low tides. tides can be checked in the newspaper daily and on a tide chart. tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the ocean surface. the moon’s pull is much stronger than the sun’s but both can work together. the difference in height between the high and low tide is called the tidal range

Geomorphic Processes

the three key biophysical processes that shape the coastal environment are erosion (wind and waves), transportation (longshore drift) and deposition (wind waves)

Erosional Processes - Coastal Landforms

erosional processes remove sediment from the coast and wear away the coast line. some sections wear away more easily due to the type of rock which results in an uneven coastline. the most significant erosional force is wave action. wind erosional forces are called aeolian processes

the main erosional features found on coasts are around headlands. they are shaped by three processes that are all related to waves

• hydraulic action - waves crash against a headland. waves enter cracks in the rock and air is compressed into the crack by the force of the water being pushed by the wave. as the air is compressed it acts to erode rock. blow holes are a common feature formed by hydraulic action

• corrasion - wave action moves rock and other material across the rock shelf and wears away the rock

• corrosion - waves wet rocks and as the rock dries the salt in the sea water crystallises and acts on the minerals in the rock to erode material. when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak acids

as waves approach the coast they bend or refract due to headlands and the contours of the ocean floor. in the open ocean, wave energy is distributed evenly along the entire wave. wave refraction causes the wave energy to be concentrated in particular areas and less intense in others

along the coastline there are often many features created by erosion. the most common are rock platforms which are created in the zone between high and low tide levels, where the waves are most active

features of coasts caused by erosion

cave - caves are created when there is an area of softer rock on the side of a headland. the waves erode the softer rock faster than the remaining headland

arch - when the rock at the back of the cave is softer than the rock on the roof, the power of the waves will keep eroding through the headland to the other side, this creates an arch

stack - when the roof of an arch collapses, the remaining landform is called a stack. the 12 apostles is a famous stack

blowhole - if the rock is hardest at the back of the cave and soft on the roof, it will create a blowhole

transportation processes - longshore drift

once material is eroded by wind and wave action it is transported to other places. longshore drift is the process of transporting sand along the coast. this is one of the most important processes that operates in the coastal environment

waves usually approach the coast at an angle. once the waves break they start to lose their energy. as the swash travels up the beach it slows until the force of gravity causes it to travel directly back towards the ocean - in a straight line

the water will then be hit by the next wave and the process begins again. sand is transported along the beach in a zig zag action

• important process on the east coast of Australia is that the wind comes from the south and moves sand northwards. the sea currents do the same. this causes erosion at the south end of beaches and deposits sand at the northern end

• however, very little of this sand reaches the beaches of the Sunshine Coast due to the sheltering effect of Moreton Island

Depositional Processes - Coastal Landforms

• deposition is when eroded material including sand and other sediment is dropped by constructive waves

• it happens because waves have less energy

• depositional landforms include beaches and coastal dunes, which are shaped by the action of the wind, waves and prevailing ocean currents

the beach is the area between the lowest spring tide level and the point reached by storm waves in the highest tides. every beach is different but they are made from the accumulation of sand along the shoreline formed from eroded rock and shell material

sand dunes are an obvious depositional feature, they are dynamic and are constantly being reshaped

• coastal dunes are formed by the action of the wind

• once sand is deposited on the beach it can be transported by waves and wind

• sand is blown landward and trapped by low-lying vegetation like coastal spinifex

• the foredune is a store of sand which may be eroded away or may continue to increase in size

• the foredune provides a buffer zone for the fragile hind dune vegetation as well as property and developments

• plant communities can quickly recolonise and stabilise the area after periods of erosion, allowing the dune to form again

material that is transported by waves along a coastline is eventually deposited forming distinctive deposition features. there are other main features besides beaches and sand dunes are

1. spits

2. bars

3. tombolos

Spits

spits are long narrow ridges of sand which project from the coastline into the sea. the formation of a spit begins as sand accumulates from longshore drift. the sand which is deposited usually builds up over the years to form a long ridge which is stabilised and produces terrestrial communities

Bars

bars form in the same way as a spit, by longshore drift, but are created where a spit grows across a bay, joining two headlands. behind the bar, a lagoon is created, where water has been trapped and the lagoon may gradually be infilled as a salt marsh develops due to it being a low energy zone, which encourages deposition

Tombolos

tombolos are formed where a spit continues to grow outwards joining land to an offshore island

Atmospheric processes

the coast is a dynamic zone where the atmosphere, ocean and land interact. ocean temperature, waves, tides, ocean currents and wind all contribute energy to form and shape the coast. coastal change, resulting from these processes and interactions, occurs on short, medium and long time scales

there are two common coastal hazards under the present climate

• coastal erosion - erosion occurs when winds, waves and coastal currents act to shift sediments away from an area of the shore, often during a storm. in most locations, this is a short-term process and the shore gradually regains sediment

• inundation - during a storm, low atmospheric pressure and onshore winds can cause storm surge and extreme wave heights along the coast. when these coincide with high tide, inundation may result

Biotic processes

• at the beach, plants are typically low and tough as they have to survive the onshore winds and salt spray

• sometimes plants are introduced to stabilise dunes, which can move or be washed away

• in the water there are many varieties of sea grasses and seaweed

• there are also giant kelps and large brown algae that grows just below the low tide mark in dense beds

• kelps absorb wave action and help defend the shoreline against storms

• animal life consists of beach worms, planktons and crustaceans which provide food for fish

• small fish are food for sea birds and larger fish

• the variety of coastal environments are habitats for a huge amount of marine and terrestrial species, including fish

• many shallow marine environments like rock platforms and submerged reefs are important fish breeding areas

importance of coasts

80% of Australia’s population lives within an hour or 100 kilometres of the sea. Coasts are aesthetically pleasing and they provide sites for a variety of recreational and leisure pursuits

the coastal environment acts as a buffer zone for housing and other developments. it acts as a breeding ground for many marine species. coastal environments also have great spiritual and cultural connection

causes of coastal environment change

the pressure of urban development along the coastline has caused a range of geographical issues involving various groups

all coastal activities need to be managed so that the development of the coastline is sustainable

Housing and resort development

• beaches are formed by erosion and deposition of sand

• when humans use beaches for housing and recreation, the natural cycle is interrupted

• this involves

  • construction of houses around lagoons and swamps

  • the use of wetlands for landfills

  • the development of sand dunes for real estate

Tourism and recreation pressures

• coastlines have experienced the construction of high-rise resorts, shopping esplanades, playgrounds, golf courses and beach car parks

• tourism development called ‘coastal clustering’ can affect the quality of coastal zone’s physical environment / habitats

• the use of sand dunes for recreational purposes damages sand dune formation and scares away wildlife

• recreational purposes have all had negative effects on Australia’s coastal areas

Ports and marinas

• natural beach channels are widened or deepened by removing earth from the bottom of waterways (a process known as dredging)

• this destroys the habitats of benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms that live in the sediment that is removed

• stone breakwaters stretching far out to sea are constructed around ports and marinas to reduce wave impacts and tidal fluctuations

• this has the negative consequence of hindering natural erosion and mineral deposition processes

Coastal rivers and lagoons

• human activities have also reduced the biodiversity of our coastlines

• small fish and crustaceans that breed in the coastal ecosystems are often the first link in large food chains

• the impact of their population can see a reduction or extinction of the entire food chain

Sand mining

• in Queensland and northern NSW, certain minerals found in beach sand are mined for the production of paints and industrial tools

• extraction of sand minerals requires quarrying of beaches, which disrupts the natural cycles that form sand banks and destroys the habitats of many plants and animals

Pollution

• vast areas of land covered in concrete and bitumen generate enormous amounts of contaminated storm water and rainwater run-off

• this pollutes our waterways and damages fragile coastal ecosystems

• petrol related pollutants are emitted from motorboats, ferries and large ships and can harm the coastal environment

Climate change

• the sea level has already risen and continues to rise due to climate change

• climate change exacerbates coastal flooding from a storm surge as the storm rides on higher sea levels

• Australia is highly vulnerable to increasing coastal flooding because our cities, towns and critical infrastructure are mainly located on the coast

• rising sea levels pose risks for many of Australia’s species and iconic natural places, and is eroding the viability of coastal communities in low-lying areas of Asia

• there is a need to cut greenhouse gas emissions if we are to avoid the most serious risks from rising sea levels and coastal flooding

management of coasts

coastal management refers to the use and protection of all coastal areas

coastal management refers to the use and protection of all coastal areas. as this environment is in a constant state of evolution - by rainfall, wind, ocean currents, waves and tidal movement, developing strategies that are designed to protect and preserve the coastal environment is necessary. intervention in order to protect property, make areas safe for boating and restore the environment is critical

geographers develop coastal management strategies to ensure a balance exists between the human development on the coast and the natural forces that operate within the environment. there are a number of coastal management strategies that have been developed to manage coastal environments around Australia

geographers develop coastal management strategies to ensure a balance exists between the human development on the coast and the natural forces that operate within the environment. there are a number of coastal management strategies that have been developed to manage coastal environments around Australia

this includes

• hard engineering (expensive, short term, building hard surfaces)

• soft engineering (cheaper, long term, natural processes)

Hard engineering

hard engineering involves using rocks and concrete to create structures which stop erosion are a frequent management strategy used along the coast. these include

• breakwaters - constructed at the entrances to rivers, they extend into the ocean in order to stabilise river entrances and provide safe access for boating by keeping the river entrance clear of sand build-up. they can act to dramatically alter patterns of erosion, transportation and deposition of sand along the coastline

• sea walls - used to stop erosion of the coastline and protect property. sea walls often replace the foredune, which is an essential part of the beach erosion - longshore drift and the scenic appeal of the beach may be reduced by their construction

• groynes - constructed along beaches (almost at right angles to the shore) to catch sand and make beaches wider. as a management technique they rely on the sand carried by longshore drift. they protrude into the ocean and are designed primarily to slow down the rate of longshore drift. however, sand tends to accumulate on one side only, creating a different beach from its natural shape. groynes were traditionally made out of wood or rocks and concrete

• artificial reef - can be defined as any solid structure which has been submerged in the natural environment. they are rubble mound breakwaters of typically single-sized stones with a crest at or below sea level. they are usually constructed offshore (often parallel to the shore). they are usually less intrusive and (depending on orientation) can have less impact on longshore processes. artificial reefs reduce wave energy and protect the beach from erosion

Soft engineering

• beach nourishment - involves the movement of sand by machines. large quantities of sand are moved from a point where it accumulates to a point where it has been eroded. as a beach management technique it is expensive and needs to be ongoing. dredging river mouths along the coast is a common source of sand for beach nourishment

• coastal dune preservation - coastal dunes play their natural role as a buffer between the beach and land and avoids councils having to develop and build elaborate sea walls to protect property. also, constructing fences to control access of pedestrians and vehicles across sand dune areas. this helps stop erosion as trampling vegetation removes the protective covering. finally, revegetation to help stabilise the dunes when the natural vegetation has been removed

human efforts to mitigate wave action include: groynes, jetties, breakwaters, seawalls, dredging, nourishment, land reclamation can be unsuccessful and difficult to achieve

people have different perceptions of a range of issues associated with coastal management. perceptions are the view that different people hold depending on how a particular situation affects them. the perceptions within a particular group may not necessarily be the same depending on the personal beliefs of each individual

it is important that protecting and managing the coasts involves the valuation of the success by individuals, groups and the levels of government

the main players in coastal management are

• individual residents of coastal communities

• groups/developers wishing to build high rise apartments and resorts on the coastline

• groups/organisations such as Coastwatch meet and take action to influence the decisions made by the different levels of government

• government agencies such as the coastal council of NSW and the Dept of Environment

• coastal management schemes need to be not only based on a sound understanding of the natural coastal processes that operate but also ensure access to the coastal areas for the community. for this reason it is essential that coastal management schemes have the support of all levels of government as well as community groups

• the settlement of disputes in coastal areas should be on the basis on sustainability (long-term protection), social justice and equity (fairness to all concerned)

• the interest of developers may be to make a profit for a large development. developers may be forced to reduce the size of their development in the interest of residents and environmentalists

Human Wellbeing

Human Wellbeing and Development

An introduction to human wellbeing and development

human wellbeing is a multidimensional term which refers to people’s quality of life and happiness. it is something that is experienced when people have what they need for life to be good

we can use indicators of wellbeing to help us. indicators are important and useful tools for monitoring and evaluating progress, or lack of it

human wellbeing encompasses physical, social economic, and emotional and spiritual characteristics. improving overall living conditions increases a person’s human wellbeing

improving economic conditions through development is not enough for a person’s human wellbeing to be achieved.

while economic wealth can meet the demands for material goods and services, people also need clean air, access to water and contact with a healthy natural environment for their mental and physical health

variations in human wellbeing can be found not only across different countries but also in different cities. a homeless person living on the streets in Sydney may or may not have much in common with a person who is living in a squatter settlement in Ethiopia or Somalia

development is a term that can be used to highlight the human wellbeing of a person. it is seen as the outcome of economic growth, the ongoing dynamic process of a sustained improvement in people’s quality of life or wellbeing. The process of development involves improving the quality of people’s life through better education, improved health and nutrition, a cleaner environment and a rich cultural life

Global indicators used to measure a good life

• health, income, life expectancy, literacy rates, women’s participation in public life, infant mortality and many other indicators

Ways of measuring wellbeing and development

whichever method of classifying development or wellbeing we choose. it is important to understand the terms that have been used, the values that underpin it, and what perspective we take. the world is often divided simplistically into extremes such as ‘rich’ or ‘poor’.

What is a developing country?

a developing country is one in which the majority lives on far less money - with far fewer basic public services - than the population in highly industrialised countries. six million of the world’s 7 billion people live in developing countries where incomes are usually under $2 per day and a significant portion of the population lives in extreme poverty (under $1.25 per day)

a developing country may be one

• that is largely rural or with a population that is migrating to poorly equipped cities, with a low-performing economy that is based primarily on agriculture and where non-agricultural jobs are scarce and low-paying

• where the populace is often hungry and sorely lacks education, where there is a large knowledge gap and technological innovation is scarce

• where the amount of government debt is unsustainable

• where the land mass, population, and domestic markets are small and far dispersed, often on remote islands or in island groups, susceptible to natural disasters, with limited institutional capacity, limited institutional capacity, limited economic diversification, and/or

• where government has collapsed and armed conflict has left a fragile state with weak institutions and policies, either unwilling or unable to provide basic social services, especially for the poor. It is estimated that a third of people living in absolute poverty around the world live in fragile states in a vicious cycle of poverty and conflict

What is a developed country?

a developed country, industrialised country, or ‘more economically developed country’ is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialised nations

most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialisation, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living. which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate

developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the service sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. they are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialisation, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian

Indicators of wellbeing

human wellbeing can be measured using qualitative (subjective) measures of a person’s life or quantitative (objective) measures relating to a person’s life

qualitative and quantitative measures relating to a person’s life. these can be classified into a range of broad categories:

• economic indicators - income, GDP, GNP

• social indicators - life expectancy, literacy rates, infant mortality rates

• environmental indicators - health of the environment

• political indicators - women’s participation in public life

• technological indicators - transport, communications

Human Development Index (HDI) is a tool developed by the United Nations to measure and rank countries’ levels of social and economic development based on four criteria: life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling and gross national income per capita

the human development index is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development - a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living

• the health dimension is assessed by life expectancy at birth

• the education dimension is measured by mean years of schooling for children

• the standard of living dimension is measured by gross national income per capita

the HDI simplifies and captures only part of what human development entails. it does not reflect on inequalities, poverty, human security, empowerment etc

• very high - Australia, Norway, USA, Canada, UK, Netherlands, Germany, Japan, Qatar

• high - Russia, Mexico, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Lebanon, Fiji

• medium - Indonesia, Egypt, Philippines, South Africa, Cambodia, Vietnam, Timor

• low - Ethiopia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Afghanistan, Yemen, Pakistan, PNG, Zimbabwe

advantages of HDI

• equally weighted components

• good summary of a country’s development

• highlights development issues

disadvantages of HDI

• may not truly show development issues

• does not show inequalities

• does not show happiness

• reliability of data from some nations

inequality adjusted human development index

the inequality adjusted human development index (IHDI) seeks to measure the level of human wellbeing and the level of inequality. it is a measure of the actual level of human development and the level of inequality in a country

happy planet index

the new Happy Planet Index (HPI) results map the extent to which 151 countries across the globe produce long, happy and sustainable lives for the people that live in them

each of the three component measures - life expectancy, experienced wellbeing and ecological footprint - is given a traffic light score based on thresholds for good, middling and bad performance

these scores are combined to an expanded six-colour traffic light for the overall HPI score. to achieve bright green, a country would have to perform well on all three individual components

HPI = experienced wellbeing x life expectancy / ecological footprint

the where-to be born index

the where-to-be-born index, which links the results of subjective life-satisfaction surveys and objective determinants of quality of life (related to factors such as geography, demography, politics, income, crime, trust in public institutions and health of family life), was developed by The Economist Intelligence Unit to forecast how countries across the globe will be ranked in 2030. this will also be the year when a child born in 2013 will reach adulthood

trends in wellbeing and development

a problem with categorising countries by levels of development using statistics is that it may not indicate the true picture of the country. we need not only quantitative information but qualitative information

in examining wellbeing and development we need to consider the trends in health, wealth and education

trends in life expectancy

• traditionally, a major concern of wellbeing and development focused upon health, specifically on food and nutrition

• this was because extreme hunger and malnutrition became problems in the 1990d and early 2000

• hunger is often the result of a range of factors including conflict, natural disaster, poverty and environmental degradation

• besides food and nutrition, another major trend has been the existence of disease

• in some countries, people struggle to obtain the most basic healthcare services and doctors work in hospitals that are old and poorly equipped

• in other countries, hospitals have state of-the-art facilities and access to the newest treatments and drugs

• to ensure healthy lives and positive wellbeing, programs that specifically aim of reducing infectious diseases including malaria and tuberculosis are needed

trends in wealth

• by any measure, the world’s wealth is unevenly distributed

• the richest one percent of the world’s population has approximately the same amount of wealth as the other 99% of the world’s population

• all 10 of the world’s poorest countries are in Africa

• a country’s GDP is one way to measure wealth

trends in education

• education provides much more than the opportunity to read, write and count

• it is the key to helping people lift themselves out of poverty as it provides individuals with opportunities to become more engaged with society, to participate in the workforce and improve their country’s economy

• literacy rates measure the percentage of adults who can read and write and are often used as an indicator of education levels within countries

Spatial Variations in Wellbeing

Spatial variations in wellbeing and development

• human wellbeing is different right across the globe

• in some nations the reality of not having two cars may be seen as a problem, whilst in others it may not be having enough to eat

• there are many reasons for differences in wellbeing between and within countries

• by 2050, it is estimated that the world’s population will be between 8 and 11 billion

• it is not just a matter of how many people we can fit in a particular place, but also the manner in which we live that affects our wellbeing

• spatial variations exist across the globe for a range of wellbeing indicators such as life expectancy rates, infant and child mortality rates and fertility rates

Spatial variations in life expectancy rates

life expectancy (the average time a person is expected to live) based on demographic factors including gender varies around the world considerably

• in Japan a person can expect to live to 84.5 years

• in the Central African Republic they can expect to live to only 52.8 years

life expectancy has increased due to improvements in farming techniques, working conditions, nutrition, medicine and hygiene

there is a clear connection between wealth and life expectancy: wealthier people in all countries can expect to live longer than poorer people

extending human life is the ultimate goal in improving development and human wellbeing. for this to happen, life expectancy across the globe needs to be improved

Spatial variations in infant and child mortality rates

infant mortality refers to the mortality of children under the age of one whilst child mortality refers to the mortality of children under the age of five

infant and child mortality is closely connected to life expectancy; countries with high death rates for children under five years of age have low life expectancy and countries with low death rates for children under five years of age have high life expectancy

Spatial variations in fertility rates

total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children born to a woman of child-bearing age (15-49)

fertility patterns have changed dramatically over the last few decades. global fertility has reached unprecedented low levels, yet stark differences persist in childbearing patterns across countries and regions

this average number varies across countries and regions

• Africa remains the region with the highest fertility at 4.7 children per woman. Middle and Western Africa stand out as having particularly high fertility of over 5 children per woman

• Europe has the lowest fertility of 1.6 children per woman

• Oceania has total fertility of 2.4 children per woman

Population pyramids

a population profile is a standard style of graph that represents the age and sex composition of a population, sometimes called population pyramids. the key elements of a population profile are

• age groups are usually in five-year cohorts, shown on the vertical axis

• percentages of each age group or actual numbers of the population are shown on the horizontal axis at the bottom

• females on the right side and males on the left side

the shape of the pyramid is also important because it tells us a lot about the particular population

• if the base of the pyramid is wide, then the population is said ‘young’

• if the upper part is relatively wide, then the population is said ‘old’ or ‘ageing’

• events such as war, famine, diseases or large-scale emigration may explain why there are fewer people in a particular age group

• the effects of a ‘baby boom’ and/or immigration may explain why there are more people than expected in a particular age group

Reasons and consequences of spatial variations in wellbeing and development

• the concept of economic development is not easy to achieve

• there are many factors both internal and external that can indicate and sometimes explain a countries poor development status

• some believe that the poor were the chief cause of their own problems

• today, it is widely acknowledged that a complex relationship between frequently interrelated factors contributes to their ongoing problems

external reasons

• external factors refer to those that take place outside the control of a country

• many of these are historical and have played a significant role in determining the level of development experienced by different countries in certain parts of the world