Anatomy

Inferior

Below or further away from the head

Superior

Above or nearer to the head

Proximal

Nearer to where a limb attaches to the body

Distal

Further away from where a limb attaches to the body

Posterior

Behind or nearer to the back

Anterior

The front or nearer to the front

Internal

Located inside or further away from the surface

External

Located on or near the surface

Lateral

Further away from the midline of the body

Medial

Closer to the midline of the body

Axial Skeleton

The skull, ribs/thoracic cage, sternum, vertebral column

Skull

Protects the brain, forms the orbit of the eyes, attachment to muscles, and structure to the face

Ribs/Thoracic Cage

Protects and supports internal organs, such as the heart and lungs

Sternum

A flat bone that starts at the bottom of the throat and runs to about halfway down the center of the chest

Vertebral Column

Supports the spinal cord and head, provides articulation sites for ribs and innominate bones of the pelvic girdle

Cervical Vertebrae

Smallest vertebrae, more movement than thoracic and lumbar vertebrae

Thoracic Vertebrae

Restricts movement, ribs are attached to the side of each vertebrae

Lumbar Vertebrae

The biggest and strongest of the vertebrae, plays a major role in weight-bearing

Sacral Vertebrae

Transmits weight from body to pelvis and legs

Coccygeal Vertebrae

Tailbone

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

Anchors and supports the upper limbs, attachment site for muscles that move the arms

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

Supports and protects abdominal organs, transfers weight from upper body to lower limbs

Upper Extremity/Arms

Humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges

Lower Extremity/Legs

Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges

Long Bones

Long cylindrical shaft, enlarged at both ends, important for movement (e.g., femur, metatarsals, clavicle)

Short Bones

Small and cube-shaped, articulate with more than one other bone (e.g., carpals, tarsals)

Flat Bones

Curved surfaces, provide protection and muscle attachment (e.g., sternum, scapula, ribs, pelvis)

Irregular Bones

Specialized shapes and functions (e.g., vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx)

Epiphysis

Two end partitions of a long bone, covered by articular cartilage

Diaphysis

Compact part of a long bone, long shaft covered by periosteum membrane

Periosteum

Membrane of a long bone for protection

Spongy Bone

Lighter and less dense than compact bone, contains red bone marrow

Articular Cartilage

Smooth tissue that covers the ends of bones, reduces friction and absorbs shock

Bone Marrow

Soft fatty substance in bone cavities, produces blood cells (red marrow) and stores fat (yellow marrow)

Compact Bone

External layer of bone, dense and filled with passageways for nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic system

Marrow Cavity

Space within the diaphysis where yellow marrow is stored

Connective Tissue

Joins bodily structures, reinforces joints, transports nutrients, made up of proteins and intercellular fluid

Fixed Joints

Very stable, no observable movement, joined by strong fibers called sutures

Cartilaginous Joints

Allows slight movement, ends covered with fibrocartilage pads

Synovial Joints

Most common type, allows a wide range of movement, characterized by joint capsule and synovial membrane

Ligament

Band of strong fibrous connective material, joins bone to bone and provides stability

Pads of Fat

Found between capsule, bone, or muscle, increases joint stability and reduces friction

Meniscus Trough

Flexible discs of fibrocartilage, improves fit between bone ends and reduces wear and tear

Bursae Fluid

Filled sac found between tendon and bone, reduces friction in high-stress areas

Articular Cartilage

Smooth and spongy covers of the

Gliding

Usually flat or slightly curved, slide across each other, with the least amount of movement

Hinge

The articular surfaces have been fused so movement in one direction, joined by ligaments, movement is only allowed in one plane (extension/flexion)

Pivot

The rounded surface of one bone that rolls around a ring formed by bone and ligament

Condyloid

A ball-shaped bone that fits into a cup

Saddle

bone that fits into a bone shaped like the legs, and can move up, down, side to side

Ball and Socket

A sphere-shaped bone that fits into a rounded cavity, covered in cartilage to prevent friction and a high range of movements

Contractility of Muscles

The ability of the muscle to contract and generate a force when it is stimulated by a nerve

Extensibility of Muscles

The ability to extend before its normal resting state

Elasticity of Muscles

The muscle's ability to return to its original resting length

Atrophy of Muscles

Muscle wastage, caused by lack of physical activity, poor nutrition, and disease

Hypertrophy of Muscles

Growth and increase in the size of the muscle, most commonly as a result of weight training

Nerve Stimuli of Muscles

A nerve that sends a signal for the muscle to contract

Oxygen to Muscles by Capillaries

Gaseous exchange that occurs in the capillaries so oxygen can be delivered to the muscles

Skeletal Muscles

voluntary muscles that connect to bones and allows a wide range of movements and functions

Cardiac Muscles

involuntary striated muscle tissue found only in the heart and is responsible for the ability of the heart to pump blood

Smooth Muscles

type of muscle that contracts without any voluntary control and are located in walls of hollow visceral organs (expect the heart)

Cerebral Arteries

Arteries that supply blood to the cerebellum and cerebrum

Communicating Arteries

Arteries that surround the pituitary gland and form the Circle of Willis, allowing blood supply from carotid or vertebral arteries.

Carotid Artery

Internal and external branches that supply blood to the cerebrum and face, scalp, skull base, and neck, respectively.

Vertebral Artery

Artery that originates from the subclavian artery and supplies blood to the brain.

Blood-Brain Barrier

Protective barrier that separates circulating blood from the brain's extracellular fluids.

Glucose

Simple carbohydrate that provides fuel for the brain.

Oxygen

Essential for brain function, growth, and healing.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Vital nucleotide for brain function, enhancing nutrient delivery and waste removal.

Effect of Low Glucose or Oxygen Levels

Mental confusion, dizziness, convulsions, loss of consciousness due to insufficient glucose or oxygen supply to the brain.

Synovial Fluid

Slippery fluid that fills the joint capsule