bio exam 4 chap 11-13

cross between plants with red flowers and plants with white flowers would yield only pink flowers

based on the existence of minute particles (genes), allowed Mendel to propose law of segregation and law of independent assortment

self fertilization produces offspring identical to parent

parent plants differ in one character

four hypothesis: alleles are genes found in alternate versions responsible for variation, organism inherits two alleles (one from each parent), if alleles differ one determines the organism’s appearance (phenotype), genes in a pair segregate during meiosis and each sperm or egg receives only one member of the pair

visual representation used to calculate the expected results of simple genetic crosses

physical location of a trait or gene on a chromosome

alternate versions of a gene

masks the expression of the recessive allele

has two identical alleles

two different alleles at locus

cross between two individuals with two different observed traits, F2 generation 9:3:3:1 ratio

each pair of alleles separates independently of all other pairs during gamete formation, only applies to alleles of traits on different chromosomes

cross between an individual with dominant phenotype and individual with recessive phenotype to determine if the dominant individual is homozygous or heterozygous

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

no abnormality but can pass allele for recessively inherited genetic disorder

multiply probabilities of events that must occur together

ex: probability of rolling a 6 then rolling a 5 -→ 1/6 * 1/6= 1/36

add probabilities of events that can happen in different ways

ex: probability of rolling either a 5 or a 6 -→ 1/6 + 1/6=2/6 or 1/3

graphical representation of inheritance patterns of a single trait in families

methemoglobinemia, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria

osteogenesis imperfecta, huntington disease, hereditary spherocytosis

gene exists in several allelic forms within a population, ex: ABO blood group

both alleles of gene are expressed equally in heterozygote, ex: AB blood type

one allele is dominant over the other, dominant allele determines phenotype

when heterozygote has intermediate phenotype between that of either homozygote

when a single mutant gene affects two or more distinct unrelated traits (one gene influences many characteristics) ex: hemoglobin because it affects the shape of the cell and the type of hemoglobin produced

trait is governed by two or more sets of alleles (many genes influence one trait), ex: eye color, skin color

when one gene can override another

separation of homologous chromosomes in anaphase I

alternative orientation of chromosomes in metaphase I

located close together on the same chromosomes, tend to be inherited together

shows orders of genes on chromosome, arrange genes into linkage groups representing individual chromosomes

female

male

located on either of the sex chromosomes

passed from mother to son and mother to daughter or father to daughter ex: color blindness, Menkes syndrome, muscular dystrophy, adrenoleukodystrophy

passed from father to son

male posses only one allele for gene on X chromosome

deoxyribose sugar, phosphorus group, nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G)

bonds to link nitrogenous bases

adenine and thymine

cytosine and guanine

bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases

adenine and guanine, double ring

thymine and cytosine, single ring

two double helix molecules each with one parental and one new strand

where DNA replication begins, produces bubble, proceeds in bith directions, ends when products from bubbles merge with each other

unzips double stranded DNA to single strands by breaking H bonds

bind to single stranded DNA and prevents it from reforming double helix during replication

synthesizes short RNA primers

synthesizes DNA in leading and lagging strands, removes RNA primers, fills gaps with more DNA, proofreads newly made DNA

place complementary nucleotides in fork

covalently attaches adjacent Okazaki fragments in lagging strand

orientation of DNA strands/phosphate sugar backbone

hydroxyl group attached to deoxyribose

phosphate group attached to deoxyribose

direction DNA replication occurs

replication on 3’-5’ template

replication on 5’-3’ template, short segments

end DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to

exposed so synthesis in 5’-3’ direction is easier, replication is continuous, requires formation of single primer

has to be opposite direction so DNA polymerase synthesizes new strand in short 5’-3’ segments with periodic starts and stops, joined by DNA ligase, requires formation of new primer at start of each Okazaki fragment

short segment of RNA

links ribonucleotides that are complementary to DNA template into primer

uses visible light to break covalent bonds between bases that occur because of exposure to UV light

end of eukaryotic chromosomal DNA, protect genes from being eroded through multiple rounds of replication

uses short molecule of RNA as template to extend 3' end of telomere, lengthens telomere

one specific origin of replication site

numerous origins of replication, replication fork, takes longer to replicate but multiple origins speeds it up, linear chromosomes that make DNA polymerase unable to replicate ends of chromosomes (composed of telomeres)

based on studies of inherited metabolic diseases

expands the relationship to proteins other than enzymes

recognizes that some proteins are composed of multiple polypeptides DNA genotype is expressed as proteins

takes message from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm

transfers amino acids to ribosomes, matches amino acids to corresponding mRNA codon

makes up ribosomes where polypeptides are synthesized

from DNA nucleotide language to RNA nucleotide language, DNA to mRNA/tRNA/rRNA

from nucleotide language to protein language, mRNA is read by ribosome and converted to sequence of amino acids in polypeptide

process that dictates flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein

allows for conversion of DNA/RNA chemical code to sequence of amino acids in protein

three base sequence in mRNA during translation directs addition of particular amino acids into protein or directs termination of process

more than one codon for some amino acids

any codon for one amino acid doesn’t code for any other amino acid

moves along the template strand in 5’ direction, adds nucleotide only to 3’ end

defines start and direction of transcription, RNA polymerases attaches to it

RNA polymerase binds to promoter, helix unwinds and transcription starts

RNA nucleotides added to chain

RNA polymerase reaches terminator sequence and detaches from template

sequence of mRNA with protein coding regions

internal, segment of mRNA with no protein coding regions

added to 5’ end, single guanine nucleotide, protects RNA from cellular enzymes

added to 3’ end, tail of 50-250 adenines, protects RNA from cellular enzymes

removal of introns and joining of exons to produce continuous coding sequence

brings together components needed to begin protein synthesis

addition of amino acids to polypeptide chain

polypeptide is released

group of 3 bases complementary and antiparallel to mRNA codon

small and large, have binding sites for mRNA and 3 for tRNA

binds to mRNA, an initiator tRNA pairs with the mRNA start codon AUG

completes the ribosome, initiator tRNA occupies the P site, A site is ready for the next tRNA

exit site